When preceded by the alef that represents the glottal stop, it has the same function in initial position also; for examples, see above under alef. Sometimes you have the same double function in English in i as in piano.
Tashdid and sokun are rarely written at all, though recommended when they help the reader avoid a different and incorrect reading. This occurs when a syllable ends in a consonantal sound and the next syllable begins with the same consonant: two adjacent similar consonants flanked on both sides by vowels -VCCV-. To see how it would really sound in English if a consonant were to be pronounced twice, we would have to choose two words instead of one.
It is only used in final position and in borrowings from Arabic not recommended for non-Arabic words, though occasionally used , and even in those cases, Persian would prefer to use it only above the letter alef. Its function is changing Arabic nouns to adverbs.
This sign also is hardly ever written, unless it is found necessary to avoid misreading. Many adjectives can be nouns as well, and all of them become plural nouns by adding the plural suffixes. Also, certain verbal derivatives — most commonly the infinitive itself — can be used as nouns. As a result of this, nouns do not have gender-specific articles or endings and undergo no inflection in different cases.
In this regard, even the borrowings from Arabic are usually treated — or are expected to be treated — like Persian words. Just as in English a few words have special feminine forms actress, poetess, etc. There will be some more examples of these in Chapter 18 on Arabic in Persian. The boundaries 25 3 Nouns between word categories can often be blurred in languages, and Persian is no exception. Many adjectives can be used as nouns also, just as almost all adjectives can be used as adverbs.
If one part is a prefix, a suffix or a verb stem, it is usually written joined; other combinations are also written joined, especially in compounds with a longer history of currency, but more recent terms that combine independent words are sometimes written separately.
As for verbal agreement, see Section This suffix can be added to all nouns, even to those for which other plural forms are also possible. It is usually written joined to the noun, although the non-joined style is also becoming popular in more recent times. This means by extension that it is never attached to nouns that are used solely or predominantly in colloquial Persian.
Certain parts of body that are in pairs not even all of those in pairs! As already mentioned, this suffix is always joined in writing and pronounced together with the last sound of the noun. See also the note on the letter ye under Section 2.
Nouns ending in diphthongs -ow and -ey need no glide because of the presence of w or y respectively. When using Persian plural for the same compounds, in many instances, either noun can become plural, while using the plural for the second noun makes it sound more casual. However, you can usually use the Persian plural endings for these loan words.
In Chapter 18 on Arabic in Persian, some of the most common patterns will be listed with examples, and this brief introduction is only about the different ways they are treated in Persian. This can be understood and translated as: a A horse runs. In a generic sense. In a general sense; equal to indefinite plural in English.
However, if you know that you are talking about some particular horse and for some reason are not using a demonstrative adjective, the absence of which would make this a somewhat weird sentence : c The horse runs. Yek and chand are placed before the noun and written separately; chand acts like a number, and the noun after it is always in singular form.
For some other quantitative adjectives that can be used like chand, see Chapter 6 Section 6. The noun can be singular or plural. In contrast to colloquial Persian, if you move further in direction of literary, poetical language, you would be expected to add the suffix to the noun.
In the formal version, however, the adjectives can only be connected with va. If the word noun or adjective ends in a vowel, a glide might be required, which sounds somewhere between a glottal stop and a y. Since it is a feature of colloquial Persian, the suffix -i is never added to the noun, but rather to the adjective — to the last adjective if there is more than one.
But in classical texts of early modern Persian — some remnants still in contemporary poetry — it could be used as an indefinite marker. Very often — though not always — it is the non-verbal part of a compound verb to which this suffix is added. Only remember that in Persian, as in English, certain verbs can be both transitive and intransitive; the context should help here.
Much easier to determine in Persian than in English, because all indirect objects are preceded by a preposition in Persian. This would be the trickier part. But is it always easy to determine the definiteness? At least we know that it is definite when it is a proper noun, a pronoun excluding objective suffixes , a noun modified by demonstrative or superlative adjectives, a noun which is part of a possessive construction — these are all definitely definite!
Another factor, which is related to both context and certain verbs: the nature of the action expressed by the verb plays a great role in making an object appear as definite or not. A butcher can say:. They are meant essentially to convey smallness, which can entail contrasting associations of both pejoration and endearment. They are all stressed and written joined. Occasionally a slight change of meaning appears which can even lead to new, independent words. See Chapter 15 Colloquial Persian for more.
Apart from this common and simple form, it is good to know about the following possible, but less common, affixes. If you want this night to turn to day. It can still be encountered in contemporary Persian when addressing God:! When used with nouns, the indefinite -i is also added to the noun — or to the last adjective if the noun is modified by adjective s. For some idiomatic usages of exclamative che, see Chapter If the word ends in a vowel, you will usually need the glide -y- before -e, and Section 4.
If this chapter is an overview, the other chapters will give you more specific and detailed information. The index can help you in this regard. In the previous chapter, for instance, it was mentioned that this connector is dropped when the indefinite -i is added to a noun Section 3. See more examples under adjectives Section 6. You have the three persons, singular and plural, which makes it a set of six pronouns.
Similar to nouns, however, pronouns do not change in Persian for different cases or gender and do not undergo declension. For some variations and more details, see either Table 5.
In this function, since the verb at the end of the sentence with its conjugational suffixes can clearly show who the subject is, it is possible and indeed very common to drop the independent personal pronouns; it has to be mentioned, though, if the subject needs to be emphasized. Objective suffixes, which in this case need to be attached to the preposition, are not possible with all prepositions even less so in formal Persian than in colloquial Persian.
See the next chapter Section 6. You can repeat the plural antecedent as a noun, though. See Section 5. The problem is that formal, standard Persian does not allow objective suffixes to be added to all prepositions. Not possible, of course, if man as the direct object needs to be emphasized.
This is especially common in schools when schoolchildren address their teachers, and using a plural verb is also necessary. The verb is conjugated for 2Sg. No special, formal rank is required and these can be used for anyone you want to talk very respectfully to. Whether these and similar terms, used also for other pronouns should be treated as pronouns or simply as forms of address can be disputed.
When used correctly for 1Pl. The terms used in medieval texts are outmoded or obsolete now. As you will learn below under 2Pl. First, a glance at the different ways it can be used in Table 5. I myself 2Sg. When combined, they will be treated as definite. See more in Chapter 11, Section There is a lot of flexibility here, and the most natural position for an interrogative word is the position of the word about which the question is being made.
Both ki and che kasi are considered as singular and a singular verb is used when they are subject. The plural forms, contrary to what one might think, limit the scope of the group. This quantitative adjective can be used as an interrogative adjective also, and in both of these functions, it is followed by a singular noun.
Pas chandomi ast? How many? See Section This negative word, which is either used alone or used to make several other negative compounds, requires a negative verb — as do some other negative words in Persian. In interrogative sentences, the verb can be either affirmative or negative. They are 75 5 Pronouns used with a negative verb, and a plural verb is permissible even for singular, even more common.
As an adverb, however, it deserves some mentioning in Chapter 7 see Section 7. But it has some pronominal functions too. See Section 7. A discussion of numerals and different types of ordinal numbers will remain for Chapter 8, and here it would be enough to know that the rule is to add the suffix -omi and not -om or -omin, both of which are used to form ordinal numbers to the numbers. The first three numbers, as expected, are not quite regular. Table 5. See Section 6.
Therefore, if a word, or a group of words, is describing a noun, it is functioning as an adjective in that particular context. In this case it is assumed that the subject has not been mentioned and is indicated only by the verb. See Chapter The words thus used must also belong to a more elevated level of the language.
See Sections 6. As the examples in Table 6. If there are several adjectives of quality, no strict order is required for them, except that the most essential qualifier determining the kind or showing the purpose usually comes closest to the noun and adjectives of origin are likely 85 6 Adjectives Table 6. These several broken and ugly teapots of mine mean a lot to me. This va can be, and often is, pronounced as -o, or as -wo after vowels — but only if it is properly connected in pronunciation, not in writing to the last sound in the previous word; otherwise, if one makes a pause and does not connect, it has to be pronounced as va.
That chapter explains where these markers are necessary and where they are not. Here only what is relevant in relation to adjectives will be highlighted, assuming that those markers are necessary. The still more colloquial version which allows using both yek and -i is possible in these sentences placing yek before shahr. Formal, written Persian, however — and never colloquial Persian!
They can be used for singular and plural nouns: adjectives do not change with number. The pronoun vey 3Sg. Table 6. Apart from adding some emphasis, this form sometimes helps avoid the ambiguity in 3rd person possessive cases. Compare: The quantitative adjective chand mentioned above can be a question word also and function as an interrogative adjective in this function also followed by a singular noun. As for the contribution of verbs to producing all sorts of participial adjectives, in order to avoid repetition and overlap, refer to Chapter 10, from Section Examples: 94 the book which is on the table.
When used attributively, it is treated like other adjectives, i. The preposition used for comparative is az. See also Section Adding stressed -i suffix to nouns is a very common way of making adjectives see Section 9. Compare the following: English: Not this pen, that red one! Formal Persian:!
Here the noun is repeated. Formal Persian:. No need to repeat the noun this time. Comparative and superlative adjectives can be used in the same way as nouns.
Not so straightforward with all other countries, though. Some grammatical features of the Arabic language also were introduced and occasionally implemented in Iran after the Conquest, like the use of some Arabic broken plurals similar to some Latin broken plurals common in English and the use of a feminine suffix for adjectives if they had an Arabic origin. This chapter will not discuss in detail the types of adverbs — which are the same in all languages — or give lists of them, but it is necessary and helpful to see how they are used, what forms they have and how they are formed in Persian.
Temporal frequency adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence before or after the subject, if mentioned. As mentioned above Section 7. Adjectives borrowed from Arabic usually have a different form for abstract nouns. These are understandably common for the first few numbers only. Both Arabic and Persian versions are common for the numbers 1 through 5, as shown in Table 7. Sometimes it is a full duplication, sometimes partial with a slight change. When it comes to superlative, however, there is a major difference: adverbs have no superlative in -tarin.
The only superlative form possible for adverbs is the variant with az hame see Section 6. These are words that can be used as adjectives or adverbs.
This group can also be used as adjectives or adverbs. Whereas I had none until a while ago. Whereas I did have some until a while ago. Or: Scarcely had he opened the door when. In Persian numbers are used as pre-positioned adjectives followed by singular nouns. Table 8. Both versions, however, are familiar and common in Persian.
Though always written separately, within numbers this va is always connected to the preceding number in pronunciation and pronounced as -o see numbers 21, and in the above table. Even when not within numbers, it is usually pronounced as -o when connected to the preceding word in pronunciation — a practice very common in spoken Persian — but as va when not connected.
Note 4: See Section 5. Note 5: Pluralizing the numerals. As in English tens, hundreds, etc. However, it is the post-positioned -om version B that is used for fractions. When using numerals, Persian would not use a forward slash in fractions, but rather a horizontal line, with the numerator above the line and the denominator under it. See below Sections 8. It is only the first three numbers that have additional or slightly different ordinal forms, as shown in Table 8.
To say firstly, secondly, etc. Understandably, this is common for only the first few numbers. Both Arabic and Persian versions are common for numbers 1—5, as shown in Table 8. As an example, the expressions for the times between and are listed in Table 8. The days of the week in Persian start with Saturday, and Friday is a holiday.
Five of them start with the numbers 1 to 5. Pari is a year old]. The prepositions can have different meanings and usages, each time being the equivalent of a different preposition in English. The following are some of the most important of them with their most common meanings. Prepositions are always followed by their objects — a noun or a pronoun, which can be at the same time the indirect object of a verb.
Most of the time they are similar to the prepositions used in English, but sometimes they are not. After prepositions, you need an object usually in the form of a noun or pronoun , but not verbs and clauses. The simple answer is NO. See above Section 9. Conjunctions are coordinating, correlative or subordinating. Subordinating conjunctions are used to join clauses, and for this reason, to avoid repetitions and too many cross-references, this group of conjuctions will be covered in Chapter 13 which deals with sentences.
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions, however, can join words and phrases as well as clauses. In other cases, it is usually suffixed in pronunciation, not in writing to the previous word and pronounced as -o or, after vowels [except the vowel -i], as -wo. When used inside numbers, it is always suffixed to previous number and therefore never pronounced as va. If the sentence has only one main verb, it is more likely to be placed before the second part of these conjunctions; a comma may be used to separate the two parts, but it is considered optional.
Some of them evolved into new forms with just a few words still in use as remnants of the old forms, in which the original prefixes or suffixes are no more recognizable.
Some inflectional affixes are also included, because the main purpose here is helping learners of contemporary Persian in word recognition and in better distinguishing the main part of the word from the affixes.
All of the nouns, adjectives or adverbs using this prefix can be traced back to some such compound verb. For examples with names of countries see Section 6. Note: In Tehrani, colloquial Persian-pronounced -esh, this suffix may be added to the 3Sg. Because of its importance, it will be covered separately at the end of this list see Section 9.
Occasionally -i is added to some words ending in consonants and is written joined. This stressed -i should not be confused with the unstressed one indefinite marker. All of those ending in -tan with one or two exceptions are irregular; in contrast, most of those ending in -dan are regular. But when we say irregular, we are talking about Stem I or the present stem.
The past stem, and consequently the past tense, in Persian are regular, as well as any other tense, mood and construction that needs the past stem, and this includes: simple past, past progressive, past participle, all perfect tenses and constructions present or past perfect and their progressive forms, perfect [or past] subjunctive — even future tense, which requires the past stem.
It is also good to know that irregular verbs are being increasingly replaced in Persian by regular and compound verbs — most of the simple, irregular verbs being used now predominantly in formal, literary Persian only.
The present stem is needed only for present tense, imperative and present subjunctive — and, of course, some derivatives like present participles. The present stem, however, is what should usually be learned separately. All the regular variants of irregular verbs and all the verbs more recently made from nouns belong to this group.
In irregular verbs, the close relation between the infinitive and the past stem the right two columns is still there, but there are fewer similarities between the left two columns the two stems , as shown in Table Table For negative, simply add the prefix na- to the infinitive written joined to make it negative.
To form a passive infinitive, the same general rules about passive in Persian apply: past participle of the verb a transitive verb! Here baste closed, shut is simply an adjective. And the English perfect infinitive after modals or other verbs? See how the perfect subjunctive is used after some Persian modals as shown in a table, see Section What is more important: the Persian infinitive is more like the English gerund, in that it is used and treated as a noun — it is used after prepositions as their object, or it is used as subject or object of verbs.
Only when an English infinitive is used as a noun in noun phrases like To err is human, the Persian infinitive can be a good match in translation. It must be known, however, that such words must be common in the language and one cannot usually create new words just by knowing the rule. With compound verbs, however, the present stem alone often assumes this meaning without adding -ande.
This participle can be a noun, an adjective or both. Those made from compound verbs are usually used adverbially only. And it differs from the -ande participle Section When you need the noun form of a verb as after prepositions , you can often use this form instead of the Persian infinitive provided that it does exist and has the same meaning! By repeating the imperative or the present stem of the same verb or of two different verbs usually nouns are obtained, which can then be used as adjectives also; sometimes the conjunction va is used to connect them.
In the following sentences, short infinitives have been used as nouns, with the full infinitive mentioned for reference. And some other aspects of what comes under the general concept of verbs will remain for the next chapter: tenses, aspects, moods and voices.
The prefix na- is used to make verbs negative. It is always written joined. For negative imperative only, early modern Persian used to use the prefix ma- instead of na-, but this also has changed to na- and the older version is hardly used anymore, except occasionally in poetry and in literary language.
And instead of short answers as common in English, Persian would repeat the whole verb, sometimes even with adverbial complements. In the case of compound verbs formed with nouns or adjectives, only the verbal part may be repeated, although even there it is more common to repeat the whole verb. For magar na? Sometimes a verb can be both, as it happens in English too.
This is something that should be learned with each verb. An indirect object is very easy to recognize in Persian: it is always preceded by a preposition.
There are verbs that now treat a person as indirect object but in earlier times used to treat a person also as direct object and use no preposition. In early modern Persian, however, this verb often used a direct object, i. Trying to distinguish indirect objects from different kinds of complements that are preceded by prepositions is another of those rewardless jobs that this book is not going to undertake. Fair enough and usually correct.
If the subject is inanimate, however, Persian tends to use a singular verb even for plural subjects, although a plural verb is not wrong either.
A plural verb for inanimates could even be preferred when the subject is seen as individuals rather than a mass of things or when the subject needs emphasis or is personified in some way. For collective nouns, see Section 3. There is, however, no scarcity of compound verbs in Persian. In fact, it is with the rise and popularity of compound verbs that simple verbs are losing their currency. The resulting verb, too, is always regular: to get the present stem or Stem I, simply -dan or -idan is dropped from the end of the new infinitive.
But the great majority of them are. The latter strategy, a process which has also been called back-formation of the infinitive, needs adding -idan to the present stem of the verb. But it is irregular in present tense, as Table In careless writing the glide is sometimes dropped altogether. The shorter, suffixed version is by far the more common version. The negative simply adds the na-prefix in all these cases:! These use the prefix mi- for present tense and all progressive tenses and follow the same patterns as all other irregular verbs.
See below for shodan. Present tense would be almost the same as the subjunctive, and perfect subjunctive would be pretty much the same as present perfect tense; in both cases, however, using the subjunctive would slightly increase the uncertainty. This last case c , which is a rather recent development in the language, is what concerns us here. The 3Sg. Past obligation: They had to go. Unrealized past obligation or propriety: We should have gone by now.
Past necessity: I needed to say that. Giving permission: You may go now. Past Suggestion for past: We could have picked another color. There being no future in the past in Persian, you would need to check the units on conditionals and reported speech. They could have arrested you. Similar to nouns and adjectives, it has its stress on the last syllable.
When used as a noun, it can take a plural suffix if needed, following the same rules applied to plural of nouns. It can also take the na- prefix, with a meaning similar to the English un- prefix. For the use of a past participle as a substitute for a finite verb sometimes called participial absolute , see Section The same sign has been used for giving the Stem I as well as for crossreferences between different entries.
For the meaning, you should check the main verb, unless the meaning involves something more than just being the causative version of another verb.
In transcription, these prefixes have been hyphenated to make it easier to find the main verb. See also impersonal constructions in Chapter As for all the other verbs, it would be helpful to have an overview of all the tenses and aspects, etc. Persian does have a future tense see Section The context or the accompanying adverb of time will help you determine which tense to use in English when translating.
The negative prefix always has the main stress in all tenses. The mi- or, in negative, nemi- prefix is now usually written separately, although it used to be written joined in the past, and some might still write it that way i.
For three of the conjugational suffixes, which either consist of or start with the sound i — namely, 1Pl. These possible changes, very few in number, have been shown on the list of verbs in the previous chapter. As can be seen in below table Although there is some flexibility about its position, whenever possible, it should be placed closer to the beginning of the sentence and not immediately before the main verb.
No negative! In colloquial Persian, usually the present tense is used for the future also. Although educated people may use this tense quite often even in conversation, the future tense is more for written and formal Persian. But even in written and formal Persian, the present tense can always replace the future without changing meaning.
Persian has no perfect future or progressive future and, if necessary, uses present perfect and present progressive instead. And conjugational suffixes for the past tense are the same as those for all other tenses, with only one difference: 3Sg. The past stem in Persian is obtained by just dropping the -an from the infinitive — always regular and no exceptions. The simple past tense is used in Persian for what was done and completed in the past at a certain time.
This last usage for what habitually used to happen in the past is the main difference between Persian and English past progressive tenses. For the use of this tense in irrealis constructions another difference with English see Sections Caution: Since the past progressive and the simple present both use the prefix mi-, with certain verbs, this can cause confusions that only the context can disentangle.
To see how this happens, you should conjugate this verb for all persons in these two tenses starting with mi-khandam for present tense and mikhandidam for past progressive.
Again, conjugate this verb in these two tenses to see how this happens. They might need different verbs in English translation.
Even when used in this sense, the form without mi- is not usually used for the negative or interrogative. One thing to remember is that, in Persian, as in some other languages, there is a difference between knowing something and knowing a person consider wissen and kennen in German, for example.
And perfect tenses and constructions are often about something that happens before a point of time whether in the past, present or future. This can sometimes happen in more formal, written Persian also. B With verbs of state: With a group of verbs that can be called verbs of state because they show in what state the subject is , present perfect tense is used where you normally expect present progressive to be used.
If the past participle is not used in an adjectival sense, then the verb would be about an act rather than a state and would be the normal present perfect similar to other verbs. Also by using some adverb of time to show when this started , we come closer again to the normal present perfect while keeping something of the state. Or maybe this is the act of sitting down: right now he is changing his position from standing to sitting.
It usually emphasizes the continuation of the action from sometime in the past until present; normally a period of time is mentioned or a frequency adverb is used. It is used for actions that happened before other past actions in the past or before a point of time in the past.
The past perfect tense is one of the two tenses the other being past progressive used in irrealis or counterfactual situations; for a detailed discussion with examples, see conditionals and wishes Sections But even when addressing a single person, the plural is often used to be more polite, whereas the singular is used for closer relations.
To form the imperative, the Stem I is required. The singular imperative has no conjugational ending, but the imperative for 2Pl.
The negative: In the negative, the imperative verb or the verb part in compounds is invariably preceded by the negative na- replacing the be-prefix, which is then dropped ; is invariably pronounced na- even before the -yglide ; and is always written joined.
Also, in all of the compound verbs whose first part is a prefix like a preposition, not a noun or adjective , the be-prefix is dropped. That is why the singular imperative is often nothing but the present stem.
Less irregular:! More irregular:! This has changed in standard contemporary Persian but can still be seen in poetry, even contemporary poetry. Another feature, now to be found only in traditional poetry, is the use of what can be called the progressive or continuous imperative, used for singular only and with the purpose of emphasizing continuation.
This book prefers to refer to these as simple and perfect subjunctives and adds a third version also perfect subjunctive II. And this be- prefix is in every respect similar to that covered above under the imperative: in writing and pronunciation, the glide -y- that is sometimes needed, where it can or must usually be dropped in compound verbs , and so on.
If you conjugate a verb in the subjunctive, you will see that in 2Pl. See Table In compound verbs, the affirmative be- and the negative na-prefixes are added to the verbal part. In all other cases, whether used alone or as part of compound verbs that retain something of the base meaning, it uses perfect subjunctive see Section The subjunctive is much more common in Persian than one expects it to be.
Examples: ! When used for the 2Sg. Compare: 12 Tenses, aspects, moods, voices Imperative:! A comparison with English will show again that the Persian subjunctive in this case functions very much like the English infinitive used as the second verb. For the negative, some of the modals or ordinary verbs, followed by the subjunctive, allow you to change either the first verb into negative or the second verb or occasionally if needed both. These include conjunctions in either time clauses or other kinds of subordinate clauses that express some objective, suggestion or possibility.
See the next chapter for more details and examples Sections On the whole, it can be said that uncertainty can be a decisive factor in using the subjunctive. With some verbs and expressions, affirmative and negative forms differ in using or not using the subjunctive because a change from certainty to uncertainty and vice versa is involved. No certainty. As in perfect tenses, stress is on the final -e of past participle, except in negative, where na- will take the stress. As it was the case with the simple subjunctive, here also the perfect subjunctive is not affected by the tense of the verb that it complements.
The perfect subjunctive is often used to show uncertainty, for things that may or may not have happened in the past or by a certain point of time in the future. As mentioned above Section The former version is treated in perfect subjunctive like the other verbs, whereas the latter version, which is already using perfect subjunctive I where other verbs use simple subjunctive, would have to resort here to perfect subjunctive II — a construction usually avoided in contemporary Persian and considered pedantic and awkward.
English-Persian comparisons. It was mentioned earlier that the Persian subjunctive, especially when used as the second verb, functions very much like the English infinitive. One would expect then to see the same similarity between the Persian perfect subjunctive and the English perfect infinitive. Nevertheless, there are more cases that this equation does not answer, and the translation of the Persian perfect subjunctive would preferably be the present perfect occasionally past perfect tense in English.
On the other hand, there are cases where the English perfect infinitive equals the present perfect tense in Persian, especially where Persian treats certain structures as indirect speech. An example for this: English: He pretended to have read that book. In the negative, na- is added to the auxiliary i. In this regard — adding na- to the auxiliary instead of the main verb — the passive voice and future tense are the only exceptions in Persian language.
This is possible and common in English also, but much more common in Persian. B Switching a transitive verb with an intransitive one. There are some verbs that are both transitive and intransitive, and Persian would use them intransitively instead of changing them to passive.
Answer: NO! She operated her own nose. You finally shortened your hair! This would draw the focus from the subject to the object, which is thus being subjected to the action described by the noun that follows it. Examples of this are more likely to be found in administrative language or in scientific texts.
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